Criminology
Criminological Theory
This guide helps you get your bearings in Criminological Theory before you start exploring the interactive timeline, framework graph, and concept maps.
Before You Dive In
- Criminological theory asks "why do people commit crime?" — answers range from individual pathology to social structure to rational choice.
- The classical school (Beccaria, Bentham) vs. positivist school (Lombroso) debate launched the field: are criminals rational actors or products of biological/social forces?
- The most influential 20th-century theories are sociological: strain theory (Merton), social learning theory (Sutherland, Akers), and social control theory (Hirschi).
- Start with the contrast between theories that explain why people commit crime and theories that explain why most people don't (control theories).
- Critical criminology, feminist criminology, and cultural criminology have challenged mainstream theories for ignoring power, gender, and meaning since the 1970s.
Key Terms to Know
Strain theoryCrime results from the gap between culturally valued goals and legitimate means to achieve them (Merton).
Social control theoryPeople refrain from crime because of bonds to society (attachment, commitment, involvement, belief); crime occurs when bonds weaken (Hirschi).
Differential associationCriminal behavior is learned through interaction with others who define it favorably (Sutherland).
Labeling theoryDeviance is not inherent in an act but is created by societal reaction — being labeled "criminal" can amplify criminal behavior (Becker, Lemert).
Routine activity theoryCrime occurs when a motivated offender, suitable target, and absence of a capable guardian converge in time and space (Cohen & Felson).
Common Confusions
Assuming criminological theory is the same as criminal justice policy — theory explains crime; policy is about what to do about it, and they often diverge.
Thinking biological and sociological explanations are mutually exclusive — contemporary biosocial criminology integrates both.
Confusing labeling theory with excusing criminal behavior — it's about how social reactions shape deviant identities, not about whether acts are harmful.
Recommended Reading
Causes of Delinquency— Travis Hirschi
1969Criminological Theory: Context and Consequences— J. Robert Lilly, Francis T. Cullen & Richard A. Ball
2018Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance— Howard S. Becker
1963How to Use the Interactive View
1
Explore the timeline
Open the interactive view and scan the framework timeline. Which frameworks came first? Which ones overlap? Where are the big transitions?
2
Read the articles
Click into individual frameworks to read what each one claims, where it came from, and how it relates to its neighbors.
3
Check the concept map
See how the key ideas within a framework connect. This is useful for figuring out what to learn first and what depends on what.
4
Test yourself
Take the quiz for any framework you've read about. It's a quick way to find out whether you actually understood the core ideas or just skimmed them.